Bureaucratic Derogatory and Administrative Hierarchy Appraisal with reference to Sub-Continent Dr. Mughees Ahmed

           Bureaucratic Derogatory and Administrative Hierarchy

                    Appraisal with reference to Sub-Continent

                                  Dr. Mughees Ahmed

                                        Abstract

          The study of the bureaucracy as administrative hierarchy

          designed by British in the political context is the main object of

          this paper. This chain of command has impersonal behavior with

          respect to public. It increased powers, by lack of initiative and

          flexibility by unresponsiveness to human needs and public

          opinion. Corruption in bureaucracy is increased by tendency to

          defer decisions to superior and to impede with red-taps. This

          paper is an attempt to analyze the overall effects of corruption in

          bureaucracy on the output of political process in the sub-

          continent. Another main focus of this paper is to analyze the

          power of non-political elements in politics. Therefore, for the

          purpose of analysis, we have adapted the historical, analytical

          and comparative approaches. It is hoped that the outcome of this

          analysis can provide a solid foundation to extend the spectrum of

          this research on this issue.

Historical Background

It is a common knowledge that the term ‘bureaucracy’ means the administrative

staff which executes commands and serves as a bridge between the rulers and

ruled.  It is a distinctive form of organization found not just in government but in

all spheres of modern society. It is noteworthy that in the United States, many

top positions go to presidential appointees rather than to permanent civil

servants. Let people not say that the government officials who have done so

little are in surplus to our requirements.

So far as bureaucratic corruption is concerned, it is referred to be the corruption

engaged in by state employees. In effect this describes a very significant part of

overall corruption, as the executive arm of the state is most directly involved in

service delivery and economic and social regulation.

Bureaucratic Derogatory and Administrative Hierarchy Appraisal with reference to Sub-Continent

Bureaucracy is almost alone in implementing and enforcing laws and

regulations. In so doing, they may have quite a bit of discretion. Most modern

legislation is general and can be effectively enforced only if administrative

officials work out its detail and implementation. Policy implementation and

enforcement usually depend on bureaucrats with which they put it into practice.

Bureaucracies are involved in political communication and political elites,

whether executives or legislators. In this perspective, many of their decisions

are based upon the information they obtain through public administrative

process. Similarly, various interest groups, political parties, business elites, and

the general public depend upon such information.‘As far as a political government is concerned, a lot depends on the relationship of different respective players and the establishment. The longevity of a political

rule depends on the individual ruler’s relationship with the establishment and

his/her own behavior. An unwise politician engages in massive looting and

plunders without considering the high political cost of his behavior. Thus, the

government is gone even before it can stabilize.’

From 1947 to 1957, i.e., during the first decades of Pakistan history,

bureaucracy was dedicated and worked hard for the development and progress

of this country. They proved themselves as change agent in this era. They held

the nation together and ensured its survival. Slowly, but surly Pakistan was

progressing as young democratic nation. Bureaucracy also played very

important role in framing the constitution of 1956 of Pakistan. Bureaucracy as

an organization structured hierarchically, in which lower-level officials are

charged with administering regulation codifies in rules that specify impersonal,

objective guidelines for making decisions. In the modern world, many large

organizations, especially business firms and the executives of developed states

are organized along bureaucratic lines. 

The main task of administration in British India devolved upon the members of

the Indian Civil Service, which set standards of efficiency and incorruptibility

which have seldom been equaled in any other civil service. Even today former

ICS officers are considered the backbone of the administration system in both

India and Pakistan. Being one of the oldest civil services in the Sub-continent,

the ICS name into being as early as the eighteenth century. After 1853,

  Journal of Political Studies

appointments were made by the British government in place of the East India

Company on the basis of open competition. As late as 1892, the (ICS)

numbered only 992 officers, and only 21 of these were Indians. But after 1900,

increasing numbers of Indians were taken into the service, through rigid

examination, and on the eve of independence a major part of the service was

Indian. Machiavelli’s skill in using information for practical purposes was

institutionalized and accepted as common sense by officials and bureaucrats

within two centuries.  In the India-Pakistan context, the bureaucrat a relic of the

colonial administration, form a powerful institution that comprises

administrators, sleuths, police, customs (powerful people who raise our hopes

and dash them at will). Remarkable changes cannot be noted in the last

century. Modern bureaucracies use state power to extract and accumulated

wealth for themselves. 

Bureaucracy in Pakistan

Bureaucracy is an active pressure group in Pakistan. The earliest policy

decisions were taken by bureaucrats, who like other bureaucrats in the world,

thought that the politicians were unruly. The state-security policies, the civil

servants adopted brought them close to the army. This was the beginning of the

most powerful pressure group in Pakistan, known vaguely as ‘the

establishment’. The nation-building process initiated after 1947 favored the

military-bureaucratic combine. Pakistan was meant to be a state that would

oppose the fundamental principle of the Indian state. Born out of communal

conflict, Pakistan represented a negation of India’s secular nationalism. If one

succeeded, it would mean the failure of the other. The first war with India began

in 1947; consequently, danger presented to the state of Pakistan strengthened

the military lobby. Bureaucracy seems to be civil administration in Europe and

America. However, with few exceptions, the bureaucrats in Pakistan have

operated in the manner in which they were brought up under the colonial

regime. Bureaucracy in Pakistan is the successor to ICS which was organized to

maintain law and order. It was not a welfare administration.

        Defects in Pakistan’s bureaucracy                                 

Defects in Pakistan’s bureaucracy can be noted because excessive political

powers are concentrated in the hands of bureaucracy to the deprivation of non-

bureaucratic segments of the society. Bureaucracy is infested with corruption

and inefficiency due to its imperial style. It suffered from exploitation of

administrative discretion. There is lack of cooperation and coordination of team

spirit in public servants, as there is jealously between different categories of

civil service. It undermined the autonomy of educational institutions, local

government and professional organizations. These are only the few major

reasons due to which the prevailing bureaucratic procedure cause unbearable

delay in implementing the national plans and policies which lead to open the

door for corruption and inefficiency at every level. It denies equal opportunity to

all employees for their promotion on higher positions in public services, for

which they deserve because of their competence. It is not accountable to

public. It failed to use voluntary contribution of non-officials in the

administration. It relied excessively on monetary incentives.

The anti-corruption policies adopted by the Government of Pakistan are also

valuable. Some of these policies have been supported by the World Bank,

include targeting perceptions and beliefs, for instance through organizing

workshops and seminars, institutional reforms, such as support for

decentralization and devolution. It also includes organizational reforms

introduced by different governments such as privatization and civil service

reforms, policy reforms, including those aimed at reducing the scope of

government intervention in the economy. Developing countries generally have

much higher corruption than the developed countries which is because of the

reason that the state typically occupies a strategic position in processes of early

capitalism.  The key to Bhutto’s bureaucratic reform was the abolition of the

all-powerful CSP, the tightly knit core of the bureaucracy which had in effect

ruled the country throughout history.  It has also been argued that bureaucratic

         Structure and size of the federal bureaucracy                             

The structure and size of the federal bureaucracy has been the subject of the

Committee on Restructuring and Rightsizing the Bureaucracy. Internal

bureaucratic accountability has been addressed by amending the Federal

Public Services Commission Ordinance, the Civil Service Act and the passing

of a Removal from Services Ordinance directly targeted at corrupt bureaucrats.

There have also been improvements in external monitoring through the setting

up of an ombudsman and through the actions of the National Accountability

Bureau. Pay and compensation issues have been addressed as part of the

government’s ongoing Pay and Compensation Reform. The Government of

Pakistan has also attempted to address some of the issues of accountability

within the political structure. The basic pay and allowances are low relative to

the private sector and also in terms of international comparisons.

Review and Reflection

The main concern of this paper has been the elaboration of corruption of

bureaucracy in India and Pakistan. Bureaucracy uses delaying tactics to justify

its corruption and plays pivotal role in rule and regulation making. Bureaucrats

are not only playing the role of mere adviser to the ministers in policy

formulation but also have combined the roles of advisers, policy formulators

and policy-implementer in both countries. It is nature of bureaucracy to

exercise their preferences for their own group interest in the form of unity. In

Pakistan and India, proud to be a bureaucrat or Babu and belongs to elevated

caste and to look down upon civil, subordinate and humble birth is a challenge

to an actual spirit of working relationship and their role in political system.

Political parties are high jacked by bureaucrats. The mode of negative and

aggressive thinking is the main cause to create a gap between officials and

mass. Such situations become common if the original problems persevere and

no dramatic transformation takes place. In such circumstances people continue

to feel the sense of insecurity of their rights. It is widely recognized that

developing country’s bureaucrats have too much ‘discretion’ which allows them

to engage in corruption or deliver poor performance without the threat of

effective checks. As opposed to bureaucracy, the political executives or

ministers should be selected from the men of dynamic personalities; who may

Bureaucratic Derogatory and Administrative Hierarchy Appraisal with reference to Sub-Continent

not play as tool in hands of top civil executive or bureaucracy. There should be

decentralization of authority and power in all the departments and divisions of

the government. A sound system of education should be developed at grass

level so that the citizens may advance intellectually and the bureaucratic

system may be kept away from the higher class. All promotions must be made

purely on merit. An impartial and unbiased press and media can serve as cheek

and balance on bureaucracy. The government should establish a research

academy on Management and Administration. Bureaucrat should be intimately

acquainted with the administrative work. Major changes also need to be made

in the prevailing outdated system, particularly in the rules and regulations

relating to bureaucracy. They must be realized that they have been given

authority and powers for the service of the people and the welfare of the

masses and not for their selfish motives and self-interests. The political

influence over bureaucracy must be eradicated. They may not be made tool in

the hands of political parties especially this trend exists in Pakistan. The

principle of accountable-management should be introduced in the

administrative structure and devolution and decentralization of powers can be

helpful in this regard. There is also need to reform the training style of

bureaucracy in sub-continent.The red-tapism should be discouraged which is in fact a major tool of corruption among the bureaucracy. It affects negatively the efficiency of the work because

it is outdated procedure and also has an effect on the merit in various cases. It

has generally been observed that mostly the rules and regulations are relaxed

in the favor of friends and relatives. Unfortunately, the aloofness behavior of

bureaucracy separated it from the masses. The current training style makes

them proud and converts them to superior class. A responsible legislature can

serve as an effective guardian of virtue through oversight exercised by standing

committees or by special inquiries. The lack of actual spirit of austerity is

leading to corruption in bureaucracy. The several practical institutional

measures can be taken to limit corruption. Naturally, remuneration must be

adequate to sustain the reasonable life standard and at the same time it must

serve as an incentive to attract competent people to government service. But

hike in remuneration and pay alone is not the answer to reduce the corruption.

                                 

BIBLOGRAPHY

·        Sultan Khan, Public Administration with reference to Pakistan, Lahore: Famous Books,2007, p.422.

·        Andrew Heywood, Politics, London: Macmillan,1997, p. 340.

·        Mushtaq H. Khan, Bureaucratic and Political Corruption in Pakistan (Report submitted for the Operations Evaluation Department), Islamabad: The World Bank, December 2001, p. 2.

·        Gabriel A. Almond, et. al., Comparative Politics Today, (8th ed.) Islamabad: National Book Foundation, 1988, p.124.

·        Ayesha Siddiqa, ‘A regime-less change’, Dawn, November 21, 2008.

·        Sultan Khan, op. cit., p. 431.

·        Mark Kesselman, Joel Krieger, William A. Joseph, Introduction to Comparative Politics, Islamabad: National Book Foundation, p. 683.

·        Bureaucracy in  Harold C. Hinton, et.al., Major Governments of Asia, New York, Cornell University Press,1962, pp. 279-280.

·        David Altheide and Jhon M. Johnson, Bureaucratic Propaganda, USA [Boston,

Masschusetts]: Allyn and Bacon, p.6.

·        Jawed Naqvi, Dawn, “Powerful people who raise our hopes and dash them at will,”February 16, 2009.

·        Hamza Alavi, ‘Authoritarianism and Legitimation of State Power in

Pakistan’. In Subrata Kumar Mitra (ed.), The Post-Colonial State in Asia,

Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1998, Lahore, p. 32.

·        Ibid., p.33.

·        Sultan Khan, op. cit., pp 437-438.

·        Mushtaq H. Khan, op. cit., p 2.

·        Subrata Kumar Mitra, op. cit., p. 56

·        Timothy Beslay, Roberto Zagha, Development Challenges in the 1990s, New York:

·        The World Bank, (2005), p. 213.

·        Barun Kumar Sahu, Unwritten Flaws of Indian Bureaucracy, [New Delhi:] Pustak

·        Mahal, (2004) p.29.

·        Stephen P. Cohen, The Idea of Pakistan, [Washington, D.C] Brooking Institution

·        Press, (2004), p. 21.

·        Gabriel A. Almond, et. al., p. 664.

·        The Times of India, 3 June 2009, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/

·        news/india/Indian- bureaucracy-ranked-worst-in-Asia-Survey/articleshow/4612918.cms., 3 June 2009.

·        Harrison, et. al., India & Pakistan: the First Fifty Years, Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1999, pp.34-35.

·        Ibid.

·        S.K. Verma, Kusum, Fifty Years of The Supreme Court of India: Its Grasp and

·        Reach, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003, p.130.

Conservation technologies for archaeological sites and artifacts

  Conservation technologies for archaeological sites and artifacts

 Conservation of archaeological sites

Excavation and conservation technology              

 Archaeological sites which have been excavated are usually backfilled for preservation. Structural components which are difficult to conserve in their original, unearthed state when using the backfilling method, such as pillar bases and platform exteriors made of tuff, are subjected to preservation treatment after removal from the site. However, the ideal situation would be to preserve the excavation site as is, with the entire site exposed, without backfilling or removing site components.

   When an excavation is carried out with a view to preserve and organize the site post-excavation,

conservation technology becomes involved in a variety of forms. Investigating the material and

structure of unearthed artifacts and remains yields important information in determining the

archaeological nature of the site. An environmental investigation is also needed to find out the

geographical conditions of the site as well as the state of preservation of the remains. Ultimately, it

becomes necessary to formulate a conservation plan which takes all of this information into account

in a comprehensive manner.

Conservation on site : Remains situated in dry soil can be impregnated with a material such as

synthetic resin to strengthen and stabilize the structures. However, in light of the weather resistance

of synthetic resins and the structure of the remains, it is not an easy matter to carry out conservation

in conditions exposed to direct sunlight and precipitation. Generally, a protective structure such as a

cover or roof is installed over such sites for display and conservation, even when they are hardened

with synthetic resin. In cases such as kiln sites, where the structure is three-dimensional and the

ceiling portion has collapsed, a partial restoration may be performed which also serves to support

and bolster the overhanging walls of the kiln. The ceiling portions are restored with hard urethane

foam, which is lightweight and can be shaped freely. By partially restoring the ceiling, the structure

of the kiln body can be more concretely presented for effective display and conservation.

   The conservation of remains made of rock, such as foundations and platform exteriors, is also

important. On the earth’s surface, rocks are vulnerable to accelerated weathering from physical,

chemical, and biological forces due to direct exposure to sunlight (temperature etc.), wind, rain,

weather damage (moisture, wind, sand, acid rain, etc.), and salts. Of course, it is often the case that

rocks which were underground for long periods have also deteriorated due to such effects as

moisture.

   There are several types of weathering depending on the type of rock. Plutonic rocks such as

 granite have large grain sizes and break up into fine gravel, granules, and sand due to the loss of

 cohesion among crystals with the disintegration of feldspars, micas, and, in some cases,

  hornblendes. Volcanic rocks such as andesite’s are relatively likely to retain their shape, but even so

  the substrate (glass) of the surface layers has often undergone degeneration from hydrolysis and the

  feldspars which are present as phenocrysts have dissolved and disappeared. In general, black

  colored andesite’s have become whitened. Moisture-logged portions may have turned into clay.

  Pyroclastic rock, such as tuff, have weak consolidation to begin with (welded tuff has strong

  consolidation) and is prone to weathering. Porous by nature, tuff develops more cavities and spaces

  when weathered and becomes more absorbent of water. Needless to say, when severely weathered

  it becomes argillaceous, or clay-like. Tuff with high moisture content when unearthed must be kept

  from rapid drying, as it will begin to crack when allowed to dry quickly. The same thing can be

  said for sedimentary rocks such as sandstone. Generally speaking, rock which has deteriorated and

  developed many spaces will absorb more moisture, and will undergo more damage from freezing

  and thawing. Therefore, when excavation is performed during the winter, there is a need to protect

  the structures from freezing by applying a sheet over a thick layer of protective material such as

  unwoven fabric.

    In performing conservation treatment, there is a need to strengthen the deteriorated rock and apply

a water repellant finish to decrease moisture absorption. However, when strengthening the rock, care

must be taken not to apply a coating which suffocates the rock. Impregnation is carried out with

synthetic resins or strengthening/water repellant impregnates such as alkyl silicate. There is a need

to devise ways to ensure sufficiently effective impregnation of the entire structure, as insufficient

impregnation of the agent into the interior of the structure results in unevenness of strength, cracking,

and separation of strata, and possible peeling of the surface in future. The dipping method, in which

the structural component is immersed directly into the impregnate, and the continuous spray method,

in which the impregnate solution is sprayed onto the rock, are some of the methods used to

impregnate the rock effectively with the preservative.

Conservation through relocation etc.  In not a few cases, important archaeological structures

found through excavation cannot be preserved on site. Or, in many cases a portion of the cultural

layer or shell midden must be cut out and transported indoors for close inspection. Archaeological

structures thus removed can be utilized as effective displays in museums and resource centers. In

such cases, hard urethane foam can be used to package the structure for removal and transportation.

There are a variety of types of urethane foam. The type used for the removal of archaeological

artifacts and structures is the kind where two liquids are combined and mixed together to create foam.

It is capable of filling narrow, confined, irregular spaces completely with foam, allowing for

complete on-site wrapping of intricately configured archaeological structures.

    Recording the horizon of the geologic strata is also important in the disciplines of geology,

prehistory, archaeology, and soil science. In Europe, methods of taking thin film cross-sections of

sedimentary strata for the purpose of preserving profiles of geologic strata have been studied and

developed over a long period of time. There are two types of resin which have been developed for

the purpose of collecting thin layers of soil strata in archaeological excavations: epoxy resin and

polyurethane resin. Epoxy resin can be used for dry soil, and is characterized by its high strength and

for having virtually no shrinkage during hardening. Polyurethane resin, on the other hand, is

advantageous in that it can be used for damp soil strata, and has an extremely wide range of

application. When used for soil stratum transcription, the resin is applied to the surface to be

transcribed, to which gauze or other backing material is made to adhere to, and over which the resin

is applied again. When the resin is completely hardened, it is rolled up and peeled off the soil strata.

After the transcription is washed with water, it is subjected to surface treatment with resin, and

affixed to a panel or similar backing for display and/or conservation.

        Conservation of archaeological artifacts

Investigation of the excavation environment Prior to subjecting an archaeological artifact to

conservation treatment, it is important to investigate the kind of environment it was unearthed in, so

as to consider what kind of conservation treatment to carry out, as well as the environment in which

to conserve it prior to and following such treatment. That is, by investigating the underground

environment of the artifact, we can explore the factors behind its deterioration and/or weathering,

and use the information to identify the state of deterioration or to consider methods of conservation.

Furthermore, this information is utilized when designing programs for the storage and display of

cultural properties: conditions such as the appropriate temperature, humidity, and lighting, as well as

the structural design of air conditioning equipment and storage facilities.

   Specifically, measurements are taken of the temperature and humidity, and analyses are performed

of the soil and water quality, to determine whether the artifact had always been kept in dry

conditions, whether there were great fluctuations in temperature, the characteristics of the soil, etc.

When handling metal artifacts, the chlorine concentration in the soil provides a wealth of

information in regard to how to carry out the subsequent conservation treatment.

Removal of the artifact    Archaeological artifacts which have remained relatively strong can be

removed as is, without any special measures, as long as care is taken. However, in many cases the

artifacts are in an advanced stage of corrosion and/or deterioration, and any attempts to remove them

as they are may result in damage to the artifact’s shape. Materials used for the removal of such

fragile artifacts include hard urethane foam, mentioned above in the description of transporting

archaeological structures, liquid nitrogen, or resin.

   Dry artifacts are brushed with alcohol to remove the sand and soil on the surface to the degree to

which it is possible. On-site cleaning should be kept to a minimum to avoid any loss of information

that the artifact may hold. After drying, acrylic resin is applied to the artifact to strengthen it

temporarily. When the use of acrylic resin alone is not sufficient, or when the artifact is broken into

many fragments, several sheets of finely cut up gauze are pasted together and backed with resin

before removal of the artifact. After taking the artifact indoors, a solvent (acetone, toluene, xylene,

etc.) can be used to take the gauze off, little by little.

   Particularly special care must be taken when performing on-site cleaning of artifacts which are

moist, as there is a possibility that the soil around it also contains textiles or other organic artifacts. If

alcohol dehydration or air drying is possible; the aforementioned treatment can be carried out. When

drying is not possible, water soluble acrylic resin may be used for treatment, or hard urethane foam

may be utilized to cut out the artifact complete with the surrounding soil, and wrap it for removal.

Plaster of Paris was often used in the past for the removal of fragile artifacts. However, because it is

laborious and time-consuming to remove the plaster afterward, and in order to avoid inadvertent

shaking etc. of the artifact, it is advisable to avoid the use of plaster. Also, when the artifact has a

high moisture content making the above-mentioned work difficult, it may be possible to use liquid

nitrogen to freeze the entire artifact with the soil around it for removal. However, it will thaw in a

short time and there must be steps taken to ensure the shape can be maintained, by the use of

urethane foam for example.

Materials analysis          The conservation science of cultural properties begins with the analysis of

its material. Materials analysis is performed first through observation with the naked eye and the

microscope, with instrumental analysis carried out as necessary. However, when analyzing valuable

cultural properties, it is preferable to do so without taking samples, that is, non-destructively. Even

in the rare case when sampling is allowed, it is needless to say that the samples must be in very

minute quantities.

   Furthermore, the conservation science of archaeological artifacts demands an accurate grasp of the

interior of the article, which cannot be seen. This is essential to elucidate the method of manufacture,

and also provides information that is important for cleaning, restoration, and other processes of

conservation. The most widely used method for investigating the interior structure of artifacts has

been x-ray radiography. In recent years, researchers have been using technologies where data is

directly digitized from images taken using imaging plates with a wide dynamic range. With this

method, it is easy to perform computerized image analysis which is difficult with film photography.

Furthermore, it is possible to extract the microstructure. At the same time, the technology of x-ray

computer tomography, wherein the interior structure can be shown three-dimensionally, has also

been introduced into the field of cultural properties, making it possible to obtain more detailed

information. Neutron radiography is also being studied and put to practical use as a method for

obtaining information that is different from that obtained through x-ray imaging.

   Another method of analysis, which is most important and has become widely used, is the

deciphering of characters written in ink on wooden strips and lacquered paper. This is performed

through the combined use of infrared TV camera and image enhancement devices to decipher

writing which is beyond the visible range of the naked eye. These devices are used to decipher

writing and drawings done in ink on pottery and metal articles in addition to those made of wood and

paper.

Conservation treatment:            Traditional methods and techniques have always been valued for the

conservation and repair of cultural properties, and the materials and technologies for conservation

have been selected with care. In particular, the conservation of artwork, handicrafts, and architecture

has relied heavily on traditional materials and methods.

   However, most artifacts unearthed in archaeological excavations do not even have known methods

of manufacture, not to mention traditional methods of restoration. These artifacts have already

undergone physical and chemical changes and are in varying degrees of degeneration, necessitating a

program of conservation treatment which makes full use of modern science.

Conservation treatment for organic artifacts :           Organic artifacts include those made of wood,

fiber, and paper, out of which wooden articles are unearthed in the highest quantities. Wooden

articles range from structural components such as pillars to containers, tools, and ornaments

including bowls and pedestal tables, not much different from the modern day. In some cases, the

wooden articles have been lacquered with urushi or bear writing done in ink (such as in the case of

wooden strips). The wooden articles unearthed in Japan are usually very fragile, with the cellulose

component largely reduced and displaced with large quantities of water. Some broadleaf materials in

severe stages of deterioration have a moisture content of 1500%. This means one kilogram of the

wood contains 15 kilograms of water. Such a piece of wood, when allowed to air dry, will undergo

such pronounced shrinkage and deformation it will no longer be possible to restore it to its original

shape.

   The most important thing in the conservation treatment of unearthed organic artifacts is to bring

them to a dry state which can withstand display and storage, without causing shrinkage or

deformation. Many methods of conservation treatment have been devised and implemented to date,

and they all have one thing in common. That is that the treatment is done in two processes:

“impregnation with a chemical agent,” and “drying/hardening with a chemical agent.”

   Impregnation with a chemical agent can be done in one of two ways. One is to take a

water-steeped article and impregnate it directly with a water soluble chemical agent. The other is to

replace the water in the artifact with an organic solvent before impregnating the artifact with a water

soluble chemical agent. When using water insoluble chemical agent for impregnation, the procedure

of replacing the water within the artifact with an organic solvent becomes necessary as a

preprocessing step. The primary objective of impregnation with a chemical agent is to strengthen the

artifact and give it dimensional stability. When replacing the water in the artifact with the

impregnating chemical agent, the impregnation step itself becomes the dehydrating process. In this

process, the important point is the osmosis and diffusion of the chemical into the artifact. Generally

speaking, when a high density solution is added to a low density solution, there is movement of

solute and solvent in an effort to make the overall density uniform. For instance, in the case of

impregnation with polyethylene glycol, the solute is polyethylene glycol and the solvent is water.

That is, the water within the artifact gradually works it way out while the polyethylene glycol or

other impregnating agent seeps and diffuses its way in as the solute and solvent attempt to equalize

the density inside and outside the artifact, and the water is progressively replaced with the chemical

agent. The troublesome thing about the process of impregnation with a chemical agent is that the

osmosis and diffusion of the chemical agent is not only dependent on the nature of the chemical but

also greatly influenced by the properties of the archaeological artifact, such as the type of artifact,

the species of wood, and the state of deterioration.

   Once the impregnating step is complete, the artifact proceeds to the “drying/hardening with a

chemical agent” step. When replacing the entire water content of the artifact with a water-soluble

chemical agent, the final step is heating the artifact to melt the chemical impregnate and make it a

liquid of 100% concentration. Nonsalable agents which when heated become liquids of 100%

concentration can also be used to ultimately replace all of the organic solvent within the artifact.

When an artifact which has thus had all of its solvent (water or organic solvent) replaced with

chemical impregnate is taken out of the processing tank and cooled, the impregnate becomes a solid

and the artifact has been strengthened in a dry state. Or, in some cases the artifact is taken out of the

tank at an impregnate concentration of 70-80% instead of bringing it to 100%. In such cases the

20-30% water or organic solvent remaining within the solution composition of the artifact is

removed through air drying or by using part of the water as water of hydration for the crystallization

of the chemical agent and allowing the rest to evaporate. In another method, freeze drying, the

impregnation process is completed with the artifact still containing a significant amount of water or

organic solvent, and the artifact undergoes drying under special conditions. The pronounced

shrinkage and deformation of an organic archaeological artifact is largely due to the surface tension

of water. When liquid water is heated, it boils at 100°C and turns to steam. However, when water is

placed in a cup and allowed to stand, the amount gradually decreases until the cup is finally empty.

As can be seen from this phenomenon, water molecules are always escaping from the surface of

liquid water in an effort to maintain constant vapor pressure, even when the water is not heated to

100°C. When this liquid water becomes water vapor, significant pull strength is generated.

   As can be seen in the everyday phenomenon of cut-up vegetables drying out when left in the

freezer, water molecules are also escaping from the surface of solids as well. The phenomenon of

solid ice turning into water vapor without first becoming liquid water is called sublimation. In

sublimation, surface tension is negligible. Freeze drying makes use of this phenomenon. In reality,

the water in the artifact is sometimes replaced with tertiary butyl alcohol for the purpose of

enhancing drying efficiency and to minimize shrinkage and deformation.

Conservation of inorganic artifacts :  Inorganic artifacts are made of a wide range of materials:

earthenware, tile, stone, glass, ceramic, porcelain, metal, etc. Out of these, metal articles are

especially prone to corrosion while buried and pose problems for conservation.

   Ancient metal articles are made of various materials. Some are made from a single material such

as iron, copper, silver, tin, or lead, while others are made of a combination of materials, such as

copper-tin alloys or copper-plated iron, where iron was covered with copper plating. In any case, all

metals except gold undergo some degree of corrosion while buried. The causes of corrosion are

oxygen, moisture, and dissolved ions, with chloride ions believed to play a particularly major role.

Such unearthed metal archaeological artifacts are subjected to scientific investigations relating to

their structure and material, and are made to undergo conservation treatment before being displayed

in public or put in storage.

   In general, unearthed metal artifacts are covered with some type of rust. The covering of rust may

have inhibited corrosion in some cases, while it may have accelerated it in other cases. In order to

control the progression of rust after unearthing a metal artifact, it is important to identify the cause of

the rust and eliminate as many causative factors as possible. Generally speaking, the causative

factors of rust in metals are oxygen and moisture as external factors and soluble salts contained in

the rust as an internal factor. Through the analysis of secondary matter, including rust, it is possible

to determine from the artifact’s history as to whether the rust will continue to progress in that

particular artifact.

   Many iron artifacts are covered with iron oxyhydroxide. There are three types of iron

oxyhydroxide known to be found on unearthed iron artifacts: alpha-, beta-, and gamma-FeOOH.

Beta-FeOOH (mineral name: akaganeite) is produced in the presence of chloride ions and

accelerates corrosion, thereby posing problems for conservation. At present, conservation treatment

is preceded by x-ray diffractometry to identify the type of rust, and by ion chromatography to

determine the quantities of anions such as sulfate ions, fluoride ions, and nitrate ions, to formulate a

program for conservation. In Japan, with its climate of high relative humidity, chloride ions are a

significant causative factor for corrosion. Desalination treatment is therefore performed to remove

these ions as much as possible. Various types of desalination processes, dry and wet (solution

method), have been devised for iron artifacts, out of which the solution method is generally used in

Japan. In recent years, methods have been developed involving the use of high-temperature,

high-pressure chambers for the extraction chloride and sulfate ions from unearthed artifacts. After

completing these types of chemical desalination steps, the artifact ultimately undergoes impregnation

with acrylic resin to strengthen it.

   Chloride ions are similarly associated with the corrosion of copper and bronze artifacts. The

presence of these ions exacerbates corrosion and destroys the artifacts. Bronze mirrors, which

appeared stable at the time of unearthing, have been known to succumb to general disintegration

after several to dozen years due to advanced pitting. This kind of phenomenon which occurs

especially in bronze artifacts is called “bronze disease.” Copper (I) chloride (mineral name:

nantokite) or hydrous copper chloride (mineral name: atacamite) is detected in the diseased parts. In

recent years, the development of the non-destructive parallel beam x-ray diffractometer has made it

possible to gain diffractometry data of rust without causing any damage to valuable cultural

properties, thereby contributing to the early detection of bronze disease.

   Bronze disease is sometimes treated by removing the causative chloride ions, but because bronze

is more prone to changes in color compared to iron, the method is difficult to employ for fear of

damaging the artifact. Therefore, methods have been developed and put into practice whereby a

protective film is generated on fresh metal parts to prevent corrosion from advancing, and to protect

the artifact from the forces of chloride ions. This is called the benzotriazole method and the principle

is a type of chemical conversion treatment. It is now used generally on unearthed copper and bronze

artifacts.

        The storage environment

   Conservation treatment does not ensure the prevention of further degradation of the archaeological

artifact. Instead, it is an attempt to inhibit further degradation as much as possible. For example,

even when a wooden artifact is successfully conserved with polyethylene glycol, placing that artifact

in high temperature and high humidity will cause the polyethylene glycol to absorb water and elute,

causing the deformation and shrinkage of the artifact as a result. Or, even when a metal artifact is

treated exactly according to theory, the rust may progress in reaction with moisture. In either case,

the problem is not about the treatment itself but is about the major influence of the storage

environment.

   In order to minimize these kinds of storage problems, there is a need to maintain the storage

environment in an optimal state. Notwithstanding the need to upgrade storage facilities so that they

can maintain a constant temperature and humidity, it is also important to deal with each artifact

individually. Generally speaking, oxygen and moisture are the environmental factors which are most

closely associated with the deterioration of artifacts during storage. Therefore, devising methods to

shield the artifact from oxygen and moisture will help to create significantly favorable conditions.

One method devised from this standpoint is the use of deoxidizer and desiccant in a bag made of

special film with extremely low air permeability. Since this method can be applied to artifacts of

different types and sizes, it can be described as an excellent method of storage. However, it is not a

permanent method and must be checked on continuously. In any case, we must recognize that

artifacts which have undergone treatment are not stable in every kind of environment and that

storage must be undertaken by checking the status on a continuous, ongoing basis.